(136a) A Shell-and-Tube Direct Steam Generator for Concentrated Solar Power Generation

 ?Making Solar Energy Economical? is one of the Grand
Challenges posed by the National Academy of Engineering. However, innovation in
concentrating solar power technologies (CSP) lags by considerable margins that
of all other renewable energy technologies. The levelized cost of electricity
(LCOE) for solar thermal electricity ranges from ca. 13¢ to 21¢/kWh.
Among energy sources alternative to fossil fuels, it is the most expensive,
with the exception of crystalline and thin-film photovoltaic technologies. The
solar thermal LCOE is currently considerably above electricity derived from
coal combustion (8¢ to 14¢/kWh). For a benchmark 100 MW_e parabolic
trough power plant, the solar field capital cost contributes 4.5 to 6¢/kWh of
the LCOE. Reductions in the capital costs and improvements in the efficiency of
the collector field are necessary to make solar thermal power more competitive
with both fossil fuel electricity and with power derived from other alternative
energies.

On the other hand, solar-derived electricity is highly
desirable, due to its carbon-free nature and the essentially infinite solar
resource.

Presently, parabolic trough solar energy generation systems
(SEGS) feature directly irradiated tubular heat collection elements (HCE) that
transfer enthalpy to a heat transfer medium (HTM). The state-of-the-art design of
a parabolic trough receiver-collector is illustrated in the left panel of Figure 1. An SEGS based upon a parabolic trough collector field is depicted in Figure 2. The collector field consists of many parabolic troughs and receivers, and the hot HTM is
collected in a manifold. Steam is generated by exchange with the HTM in a power
block separate from the collector field.

To reduce the capital cost of the parabolic trough collector
field, we propose a new shell-and-tube direct steam generator (STDSG, Figure 1). The shell-and-tube receiver combines multiple pipe bores with a single receiver surface.
In the same fashion as current HCEs, sunlight is absorbed by the outer surface
of the receiver while molten salt circulates within the shell. However, the
shell also contains a tube bundle, within which steam is directly generated.
The unit is sized such that enough heat is absorbed and stored in the salt
during times of insolation to generate steam off-sun, increasing the
dispatchability of the collected power. Figure 1 illustrates the proposed
technical advancement of the HCE technology, from a directly irradiated
receiver, to a double pipe receiver-generator, and ultimately to a shell and
tube receiver-generator. As indicated in Figure 2, we envision replacing the
collector field and steam generator with a smaller number of parabolic
reflectors and shell-and-tube receivers incorporating direct steam generation.

A shell-and-tube direct steam generator consolidates two
major functions in a solar electric generation system: 1) It combines multiple
heating tubes into a single irradiated receiver; 2) It eliminates the separate
steam generation block. Such process intensification directly reduces the
capital and operating costs of the parabolic trough collector field, the single
most expensive component of an SEGS, as well as the cost of the power block.
An STDSG appears to be a completely novel concept. A thorough review of the
open literature reveals no prior work on a directly irradiated shell-and-tube
heat exchanger. A review of the US patent literature reveals some devices for
solar water distillation that are remotely related. However, none of these
patents concern power generation, and none feature a shell-and-tube design with
combined energy capture, steam generation, and energy collection for times of
low insolation.

A preliminary mathematical model demonstrates the potential
of the shell-and-tube direct steam generator. Consider a countercurrent
double-pipe heat exchanger that is irradiated on its outer surface. The
diameters of the outer and inner pipes are D_o and D_i,
respectively, and the diameter ratio r= D_o/D_i.
Steam condensate perfuses the bore while the molten salt heat transfer fluid
flows in the annulus. We now define the solar multiple as the ratio of
energy generated by the solar field to the energy required for peak output by
the power block. The value of the solar multiple f_sshould
be approximately three in order to sustain 24/7 steady state power production
without backup from another fuel source.

The model predicts the results in Figure 3. (Note: In the
preliminary model, we have simulated heating the condensate only to saturation
temperature due to the complexity of modeling vaporization.) In the left panel,
one sees that the temperature of both the annular and the bore fluids increase
simultaneously. Therefore, one can heat the bore fluid while on-sun, and
accumulate energy in the annular HTM for use off-sun. In the right panel, the
solar multiple monotonically increases as the diameter ratio r increases.
The desired value of the solar multiple, three, occurs for a diameter ratio
of approximately two. This suggests that reasonable geometries are attainable
with an STDSG.

We are presently extending the preliminary double-pipe model
to a shell-and-multi-tube model in COMSOL®, a finite-element simulation
package. In the latter, we are incorporating tube-side vaporization,
unsteady-state behavior, and the more intricate shell-and-tube geometry (Figure 4). Figures

Figure 2. Parabolic Trough
Solar Electricity Generating System. Adapted from KJC Operating Company, Boron,
CA.

Figure 3. Left-Simulated
shell-and tube-side temperature profiles in a double-pipe solar receiver.
Right-solar multiple as a function of the diameter ratio. Values of key
simulation variables are below the plots.

Figure 4. Left-Temperature
Profiles in a Solar Shell-and-Tube Solar Receiver. The target conditions for
using it as a STDSG are superimposed. Right-Two-phase flow regime in a direct
steam generation tube